1.3 Information processes

Fifty years ago, sorting, finding and comparing information was all done manually. It was often a lengthy and expensive process. Data was usually represented on paper and stored in filing cabinets. Even deciding where to put the paper could be a problem. Sorting and searching huge amounts of paper was labour-intensive (see Figure 1.7). Information could not be easily transferred from one form to another. Reports were created by copying the information into a different form rather than transferring the data. Developments in technology have been responsible for major changes in information processing. Today, information processing refers to the creation of information by processing data using information technology. This changing of data into information involves seven steps called information processes. These processes describe the procedures that an information system performs to process data into information. The information processes start with the collection of data and conclude with the displaying of data. The steps are not necessarily separate and sequential. Several steps may occur at the same time, and they may occur in almost any order. The rate at which these information processes are carried out is critical to the efficiency of an information system.

Collecting
Collecting is the information process that
involves deciding what to collect, locating it
and collecting it. It involves more than simply
entering data.
Collecting involves four steps:
• defining the required data—deciding what
data is needed
• identifying the source of the data—where
the data can be found

determining how the data will be gathered—what tools will be required
• gathering the data—collecting and entering the data into the information system.
Data can come from either primary or secondary sources. Primary sources refers to data that
is collected first-hand. Many organisations prefer to generate their own primary data because
they consider it meaningful and reliable, although it is time-consuming and costly. Data from
primary sources is acquired by interviewing people, conducting surveys and questionnaires, or
observing a system in operation (see Figure 1.8). Secondary sources refers to data that is
collected or created by someone else. For example, newspapers, books, other print media,
electronic databases, CD-ROMs and the Internet are secondary sources. This is often the
quickest and least costly method of collecting data.

Data is entered into an information system either manually or electronically. Manual entry involves typing the data using a keyboard. Electronic entry involves entering the data using input devices such as scanners, digital cameras, microphones or sensors. It is important that procedures are in place to ensure the data is accurate, up-todate, relevant and secure. If the data collected comes from unreliable sources or is inaccurate, the information gained from it will be incorrect. This is referred to as ‘garbage in, garbage out’ (GIGO).

Organising

Organising is the process that arranges, represents and formats data for use by other information processes. It is carried out after the data is collected. The organisation of data depends on the purpose of the information system. For example, if the information system is used to store and search a large amount of data, the data needs to be categorised. This will allow it to be stored in a database. Organising gives some structure to the data. When developing an information system it is essential to determine the format in which the data will be represented. The format of the data determines the most appropriate software application and the processing that can be carried out. For example, if a text document is scanned and represented as an image, the text cannot then be processed using a word processor. If data is poorly organised, it may result in the use of inappropriate applications or the processing of unnecessary data.

Analysing

Analysing is the process that interprets data, transforming it into information. It involves examining data and giving meaning to it. When data has been ordered and given some meaning by people, it is called information. The particular type of analysis depends on the format of the data and the information that is required. For example, to obtain a report on all the sales in the past month would involve searching, selecting and sorting data. Charts and graphs are often used in the analysis of data. They make it easy to interpret data by making instant comparisons and revealing trends. Charts help people to make quick and accurate decisions. Analysing data may involve the use of a model to represent some aspect of the real world. When a model is used to simulate a real situation, people can make predictions and examine the effect of their decisions. For example, an organisation might want to know the likely impact on sales if their advertising budget was increased by 10 per cent. In business there are many simulation programs that help organisations make decisions about marketing and sales.

Storing and retrieving

Storing and retrieving is a two-step process for retaining data: storing saves data for later use; retrieving obtains data that has been previously saved. These processes are important, since most information systems need to retain data for further processing and to guard against data loss. Before, during and after processing, data and programs are held temporarily in memory. To retain data more permanently, storage devices such as magnetic disks, magnetic tape, optical disks and flash memory are used. The loss of data is a major concern in any information system. The costs of replacing data that changes rapidly can be enormous. If a system crashes, the data is retrieved from a secondary storage medium. If data is saved regularly, then the information system can be rebuilt without a problem. However, if the secondary storage medium is corrupted or damaged, the data may be lost. This could occur if the information system was infected with a computer virus. A backup is then needed to rebuild the system. A backup is a copy of data or software kept for the purpose of safety. It is usually kept in a fireproof safe or offsite. Secure and reliable backup procedures are vital to guard against data loss.

Processing

Processing is the manipulation of data and information. It occurs whenever the data or information is modified and updated. Processing is carried out by the central processing unit (CPU). The CPU accepts data from an input device, changes this data according to the instructions given by the user, and then sends the results to an output device (see Figure 1.9). These results are the information the user requires to solve the problem. A processor consists of millions of electrical components located on a thin silicon wafer called an integrated circuit or silicon chip. The speed of a processor is measured in megahertz (mHz) and is called its clock speed. Fast processors can manipulate larger quantities of data. In some information systems, the processing is carried out by more than one processor. This is called parallel processing and is much faster than using one processor. Parallel processing divides the processing task among a series of processors. This requires special software that can recognise how to divide up problems and bring the results back together again.

Transmitting and receiving

Transmitting and receiving is the transfer of data within and between information systems. Data is transferred between computers and devices in two ways: serial transmission and parallel transmission. Parallel transmission is the transmission of pieces of data simultaneously using separate lines. Serial transmission is the transmission of pieces of data one after the other. Serial transmission is used with many peripheral devices, such as mice, keyboards, modems and plotters. Parallel transmission is used for most printers. For data and information to be exchanged between information systems, compatible communication settings are required. This is referred to as handshaking. Communication settings include baud rate, parity and file transfer protocol. The Internet is a tool used by millions of people to transmit and receive information. Email is used to send data and information from one side of the world to the other in a matter of seconds.

Displaying

Displaying is the presentation of information from an information system. Information must be well organised, attractively presented and easy to read and understand. Before information can be displayed, it is necessary to decide on the form the information will take. For example, will it be a text document, a report from a database, a chart from a spreadsheet or a multimedia presentation? Information is displayed using different peripheral devices, including: • screens—used to display text, numerals, images and video (see Figure 1.10) • printers—used to display text, numerals and images • speakers and synthesisers—used to display audio • plotters—used to display images.